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Scam: #18501

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  • Posted By: Anonymous
  • Submitted: 02/09/2016
  • Severity: 8
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Adele

VIN Report

Vancouver, BC

When selling a car. Someone emails pretending to be a serious buyer and asks you to get a Vin Report.

Here is the first scam email:
Hello,
I want to buy the car. I will only deal face to face and I will pay cash
The car looks good from the pictures. I must have your last price because
I have a loan approved and I must know from the start how much to pick up
Please be fair about it

Second email says:
I agree with the price and I will ask my loan broker for that.
I would like to check the car with a friend who is a mechanic.
My friend will check the car for me if that's ok with you
I will pay you cash after I will inspect the car.
Do you have all the service docs and the history of the car?

Third email says:
I want to know if you have all the things ready to sell the car. I don't want to make the trip twice.
I want to be clear from the start and please understand that when we will meet you will need to have the history report and the rest of the docs for the car.
My friend who is a mechanic will check the car and if all is in order I will pay cash or certified bank check (if you don't want cash) Please get a national vehicle report approved by the Gov from any car dealer or you can pull one from:
http://vin.nard.ca/
I can refund you for the history report if it is to much to ask but I think it is common sense.
You can pull one from any website you want but all are asking over 30 bucks but all that reports are good.
I am serious about seeing and checking the car so once you have the report please tell me so i will take a day off from work and i will call you to set up a meeting.
I think tomorrow is a good day and I hope you can meet me too.
You will show me the report in person (face to face) or you can send it to me pdf format by email.

I hope you are serious too, thank you

The website http://vin.nard.ca/ reroutes to vin.history.co which is a known scam site. They will steal your credit card info when you purchase a fake VIN Report from them!

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Hello,
I did a good deed this week. I caught a shyster trying to sell a car that likely didn't exist and in the process learned a few things about how to protect yourself when buying a car online.

It's been a while since I last bought a car. Back then, the idea of completing the entire process online from search to sale was still pretty far out. Now of course, it's not. Gone are the days when all you had to worry about was a single slippery salesman in an auto showroom. Online car sales have brought their own special set of hucksters and charlatans, just aiming to drive away with your hard-earned cash.
CARFAX started with a vision - to be the leading source of vehicle history information for buyers and sellers of used cars. Today, CARFAX has the most comprehensive vehicle history database available in North America. In fact, millions of consumers trust CARFAX to provide them with vehicle history information every year.

And for good reason - CARFAX receives information from more than 91,000 data sources including every U.S. and Canadian provincial motor vehicle agency plus many auto auctions, fire and police departments, collision repair facilities, fleet management and rental agencies, and more.

CARFAX Vehicle History Reports™ are available on all used cars and light trucks model year 1981 or later. Using the unique 17-character vehicle identification number (VIN), a CARFAX Report is instantly generated from our database of over ten billion records.

Every CARFAX Report contains information that can impact a consumer's decision about a used vehicle. Some types of information that a CARFAX Report may include are:

Title information, including salvaged or junked titles
Flood damage history
Total loss accident history
Odometer readings
Lemon history
Number of owners
Accident indicators, such as airbag deployments
State emissions inspection results
Service records
Vehicle use (taxi, rental, lease, etc.)

Plus, the exclusive CARFAX Buyback Guarantee reduces the risk involved in buying a used car. If the CARFAX Report fails to include a DMV-issued branded title (such as salvage, fire or flood damage, and odometer problems), CARFAX may buy the vehicle back for the full purchase price*. You can also use the free CARFAX Lemon Check to help avoid cars with problems.

For more information on CARFAX Vehicle History Reports, visit the CARFAX Help Center.
Shopping for a used car?

Don’t waste time looking at vehicles with less than desirable history. Start your search on CARFAX.com and filter your results by 1-owner cars, accident history, cars with service records and more.

Find the right used car, with the right price, and start your search with vehicle history.
Already got a car?

Get the myCARFAX app to make taking care of it easier than ever! Using your VIN or license plate number, CARFAX can pull service records, maintenance schedules, open recalls and more. Leave it to CARFAX to provide you with alerts when your car is due for service so you can stay on top of maintenance and keep your passengers safe.
Think CARFAX can help your business?

Thousands of auto dealers nationwide subscribe to Carfaxonline.com to grow their business and instill confidence in their customers by providing them with free CARFAX Vehicle History Reports. Plus, other businesses, service providers and government entities rely on information from CARFAX every day to help them make better decisions.

Check out the CARFAX Banking & Insurance Group for other ways that CARFAX can help your business.
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I did a good deed this week. I caught a shyster trying to sell a car that likely didn't exist and in the process learned a few things about how to protect yourself when buying a car online.

It's been a while since I last bought a car. Back then, the idea of completing the entire process online from search to sale was still pretty far out. Now of course, it's not. Gone are the days when all you had to worry about was a single slippery salesman in an auto showroom. Online car sales have brought their own special set of hucksters and charlatans, just aiming to drive away with your hard-earned cash.

I met one last week.

Being in the market for an SUV, I went window shopping on Cars.com. I saw a listing for a 2010 BMW X5 xDrive48i priced at around the Kelley Blue Book trade-in value. It was located nearby – within 33 miles. It even had a clear CARFAX report.

The following weekend I returned to Cars.com and noted the identical SUV was still for sale – but this time, it read as a 2009 model. Hmm, I thought. The last time I looked, I could've sworn it was a 2010. Oh well, maybe it was just a listing error that had been corrected.



Convinced that this was a good car for me, I wrote to the seller using the Cars.com online contact form. I asked two specific questions about the car, one of which was its location. I expressed an interest in taking a look, maybe a test drive.

The seller's reply came quickly, but was written in stilted English. Since his name appeared foreign ("Johan Galtung") however, I was willing to forgive his iffy language skills. Heck, maybe he wasn't a native speaker. But his response was generic and failed to address my specific questions. He also made it clear he was looking for a cash sale.

Something about the whole thing didn't sit right with me, so I used the "report a scam" link on Cars.com to report details about the exchange. I was right. Within just seven hours, Cars.com investigated and responded, confirming that the ad was, in fact, fraudulent and had been immediately removed.
It turns out that Cars.com has invested millions of dollars in fraud-fighting tools and staff. Renee Porter, Director of Classifieds and Partnerships for Cars.com, said, "We take fraud so seriously here because we don't want the consumer to have a bad experience. We consider ourselves the cleanest, safest place for consumers to shop and sell their cars." Cars.com scans IP and e-mail addresses of advertisers and human staff monitor ads that come in.

When browsing an online auto mall, you'll find plenty of good deals by honest folks; but it's an unfortunate reality that scam artists are mingling among them, and their ads often appear legitimate on the surface. To protect yourself from falling victim to an online scammer, you need to be vigilant and know how to recognize potential red flags.

Some clever crooks make a concerted effort to craft "real-looking" ads. One way they do this is to provide a CARFAX "Vehicle History Report" with an online listing. CARFAX Vehicle History Reports contain information that can impact a consumer's decision about a used vehicle. CARFAX reports may include the number of owners, state emissions inspection results, odometer readings, title information and more. CARFAX gets its data from more than 34,000 sources, including (but not limited to) every U.S. and Canadian provincial motor vehicle agency, plus many auto auctions, fire and police department, collision repair facilities, and rental agencies.

CARFAX partners with Cars.com and other online auto malls, allowing sellers the option of providing a CARFAX report as part of their listing.

Used car listings with CARFAX reports may, at first glance, appear to be safer bets than those without. A CARFAX report might suggest to a buyer that the related listing is legitimate.

Not so.

CARFAX reports are VIN-specific. That means the information in them is collected based on a vehicle's VIN (Vehicle Identification Number). One scam known as "VIN Cloning" involves scammers stealing VINs off of legally registered autos, then using them to mask the identities of stolen vehicles – usually high-end vehicles like that BMW I was eying. Crooks look for a car that matches the make and model of the stolen vehicle they want to sell. Then, they steal the VIN number and use it to "rename" their stolen car.

Sometimes, there isn't even a real car for sale. A scam artist may want you to wire money for a vehicle, but he has no intention of delivering a car. The ad is just a ploy to separate you from your money.

Keep in mind, too, that while a CARFAX report will tell you about the condition of a car, it's a report on the vehicle – not the seller.

So a clean CARFAX report may not represent the actual car for sale, or even guarantee that there is a car for sale.

Chris Basso, media relations manager of CARFAX, points out that, "As the buyer, you have the power to check things out before you turn over your hard-earned money. Get the information (about a vehicle's history), then take it and ask questions. Make sure the information you're getting on the CARFAX report matches what the seller is telling you."

Here are some things to look for in a CARFAX report that may indicate a fraudulent ad:
Different States. For example, the car is in Utah, but it was last registered in Texas. This could point to a scam. Some scammers might know you're looking for this detail, however, and to circumvent your suspicions, they may indicate that the car is being sold by a leasing company. They figure you might say to yourself, "Hey, that makes sense – a rental car could have traveled between states easily." Maybe not.

Non-Sequential Odometer Readings. Odometer roll-backs are an established form of fraud in used car sales. Sellers artificially inflate the value of a vehicle by manually decreasing the mileage read-out on the odometer. CARFAX gathers information from various sources to put mileage readings on its reports. If you see mileage numbers from different dates that are out of sequence, this could indicate an odometer roll-back.

Turn-Over. Chris Basso of CARFAX encouraged us to question, "Would a person turn over a car that's one or two years old, twice within two years? It's unlikely." Look for high turn-over within a short period of time. This could be indicative of fraud.

Besides taking a close look at a vehicle's CARFAX report, also keep your eyes peeled for signs of fraud in the auto listing itself. Renee Porter at Cars.com advises consumers to look for these clues:

Different Listings. If you see multiple listings for the same vehicle, but reflecting small differences (like the year of manufacture, in my case), you're right to be suspicious.

Too Big a Bargain. Says Porter, "If it's too good to be true, it probably is. Or if you have a gut feeling, you should definitely listen to that."

Urgency. The crook who listed that BMW gave me an unsolicited story about getting engaged, buying a house and changing jobs. "Too many life changing events have taken place and are forcing me to sell this awesome vehicle," he wrote. That jibes with something I learned from Porter, who said, "Sometimes a seller might describe a life-changing event, like going through a divorce, a job change, moving out of state, to explain why he needs to get rid of the car quickly. Most legitimate sellers will stick to the facts of the vehicle."

Downpayment via Money Transfer. In its online Fraud Awareness Tips, Cars.com advises you to "exercise extreme caution before wiring deposits or payments using Western Union or MoneyGram, especially to foreign countries. Sending money in any form overseas will likely result in losing all of it. Western Union and MoneyGram are very popular for Internet scams because the funds are available instantly, untraceably and worldwide."

You might be discouraged by the fraudsters, but don't let them ruin a potentially great experience for you. The key is staying aware. And while it may seem there's a new scam popping up every day, take heart. Cars.com is pitching in to keep consumers informed. Says Porter, "Whenever we do hear of a new fraud tactic, we post it to our SAFE blog."

The internet doesn't have to be a scary place for car shoppers. It offers convenience and more options than we ever had before, and the potential to shop for the best all-around deal. You just have to be smart.

Tom Kraeutler delivers consumer protection advice and more each week as host of The Money Pit, a nationally-syndicated home improvement radio program. He is also AOL's Home Improvement Editor and author of "My Home, My Money Pit: Your Guide to Every Home Improvement Adventure."
Valentine's Day, also called Saint Valentine's Day or the Feast of Saint Valentine,[1] is an annual holiday celebrated on February 14. It originated as a Western Christian liturgical feast day honoring one or more early saints named Valentinus, and is recognized as a significant cultural and commercial celebration in many regions around the world, although it is not a public holiday in any country.

Several martyrdom stories associated with the various Valentines that were connected to February 14 were added to later martyrologies,[2] including a popular hagiographical account of Saint Valentine of Rome which indicated he was imprisoned for performing weddings for soldiers who were forbidden to marry and for ministering to Christians, who were persecuted under the Roman Empire.[3] According to legend, during his imprisonment, Saint Valentine healed the daughter of his jailer, Asterius,[4] and before his execution, he wrote her a letter signed "Your Valentine" as a farewell.[5]

The day first became associated with romantic love within the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition of courtly love flourished. In 18th-century England, it evolved into an occasion in which lovers expressed their love for each other by presenting flowers, offering confectionery, and sending greeting cards (known as "valentines"). In Europe, Saint Valentine's Keys are given to lovers "as a romantic symbol and an invitation to unlock the giver’s heart", as well as to children, in order to ward off epilepsy (called Saint Valentine's Malady).[6] Valentine's Day symbols that are used today include the heart-shaped outline, doves, and the figure of the winged Cupid. Since the 19th century, handwritten valentines have given way to mass-produced greeting cards.[7]

Saint Valentine's Day is an official feast day in the Anglican Communion,[8] as well as in the Lutheran Church.[9] Many parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church also celebrate Saint Valentine's Day, albeit on July 6 and July 30, the former date in honor of the Roman presbyter Saint Valentine, and the latter date in honor of Hieromartyr Valentine, the Bishop of Interamna (modern Terni).[10]
Numerous early Christian martyrs were named Valentine.[11] The Valentines honored on February 14 are Valentine of Rome (Valentinus presb. m. Romae) and Valentine of Terni (Valentinus ep. Interamnensis m. Romae).[12] Valentine of Rome was a priest in Rome who was martyred about AD 496 and was buried on the Via Flaminia. The relics of Saint Valentine were kept in the Church and Catacombs of San Valentino in Rome, which "remained an important pilgrim site throughout the Middle Ages until the relics of St. Valentine were transferred to the church of Santa Prassede during the pontificate of Nicholas IV".[13][14] The flower-crowned skull of Saint Valentine is exhibited in the Basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, Rome. Other relics are found at Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland.[15]

Valentine of Terni became bishop of Interamna (modern Terni) about AD 197 and is said to have been martyred during the persecution under Emperor Aurelian. He is also buried on the Via Flaminia, but in a different location from Valentine of Rome. His relics are at the Basilica of Saint Valentine in Terni (Basilica di San Valentino). Jack B. Oruch states that "abstracts of the acts of the two saints were in nearly every church and monastery of Europe."[16] The Catholic Encyclopedia also speaks of a third saint named Valentine who was mentioned in early martyrologies under date of February 14. He was martyred in Africa with a number of companions, but nothing more is known about him.[17] Saint Valentine's head was preserved in the abbey of New Minster, Winchester, and venerated.[18]

February 14 is celebrated as St. Valentine's Day in various Christian denominations; it has, for example, the rank of 'commemoration' in the calendar of saints in the Anglican Communion.[8] In addition, the feast day of Saint Valentine is also given in the calendar of saints of the Lutheran Church.[9] However, in the 1969 revision of the Roman Catholic Calendar of Saints, the feast day of Saint Valentine on February 14 was removed from the General Roman Calendar and relegated to particular (local or even national) calendars for the following reason: "Though the memorial of Saint Valentine is ancient, it is left to particular calendars, since, apart from his name, nothing is known of Saint Valentine except that he was buried on the Via Flaminia on February 14."[19]

The feast day is still celebrated in Balzan (Malta) where relics of the saint are claimed to be found, and also throughout the world by Traditionalist Catholics who follow the older, pre-Second Vatican Council calendar. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St. Valentine's Day is celebrated on July 6, in which Saint Valentine, the Roman presbyter, is honoured; furthermore, the Eastern Orthodox Church observes the feast of Hieromartyr Valentine, Bishop of Interamna, on July 30.[20][21][22]
J.C. Cooper, in The Dictionary of Christianity, writes that Saint Valentine was "a priest of Rome who was imprisoned for succouring persecuted Christians."[23] Contemporary records of Saint Valentine were most probably destroyed during this Diocletianic Persecution in the early 4th century.[24] In the 5th or 6th century, a work called Passio Marii et Marthae published a story of martyrdom for Saint Valentine of Rome, perhaps by borrowing tortures that happened to other saints, as was usual in the literature of that period. The same events are also found in Bede's Martyrology, which was compiled in the 8th century.[24][25] It states that Saint Valentine was persecuted as a Christian and interrogated by Roman Emperor Claudius II in person. Claudius was impressed by Valentine and had a discussion with him, attempting to get him to convert to Roman paganism in order to save his life. Valentine refused and tried to convert Claudius to Christianity instead. Because of this, he was executed. Before his execution, he is reported to have performed a miracle by healing Julia, the blind daughter of his jailer Asterius. The jailer's daughter and his forty-four member household (family members and servants) came to believe in Jesus and were baptized.[24]

A later Passio repeated the legend, adding that Pope Julius I built a church over his sepulchre (it is a confusion with a 4th-century tribune called Valentino who donated land to build a church at a time when Julius was a Pope).[25] The legend was picked up as fact by later martyrologies, starting by Bede's martyrology in the 8th century.[25] It was repeated in the 13th century, in Legenda Aurea.[26]
There is an additional embellishment to The Golden Legend, which according to Henry Ansgar Kelly, was added centuries later, and widely repeated.[27] On the evening before Valentine was to be executed, he is supposed to have written the first "valentine" card himself, addressed to the daughter of his jailer Asterius, who was no longer blind, signing as "Your Valentine."[27] The expression "From your Valentine" was later adopted by modern Valentine letters.[28] This legend has been published by both American Greetings and The History Channel.[29]





Saint Valentine of Terni and his disciples
John Foxe, an English historian, as well as the Order of Carmelites, state that Saint Valentine was buried in the Church of Praxedes in Rome, located near the cemetery of Saint Hippolytus. This order says that according to legend, "Julia herself planted a pink-blossomed almond tree near his grave. Today, the almond tree remains a symbol of abiding love and friendship."[30][31]

Another embellishment suggests that Saint Valentine performed clandestine Christian weddings for soldiers who were forbidden to marry.[32] The Roman Emperor Claudius II supposedly forbade this in order to grow his army, believing that married men did not make for good soldiers.[32][33] However, this supposed marriage ban was never issued, and in fact Claudius II told his soldiers to take two or three women for themselves after his victory over the Goths.[34]

According to legend, in order "to remind these men of their vows and God’s love, Saint Valentine is said to have cut hearts from parchment", giving them to these soldiers and persecuted Christians, a possible origin of the widespread use of hearts on St. Valentine's Day.[35]

Saint Valentine supposedly wore a purple amethyst ring, customarily worn on the hands of Christian bishops with an image of Cupid engraved in it, a recognizable symbol associated with love that was legal under the Roman Empire;[33][36] Roman soldiers would recognize the ring and ask him to perform marriage for them.[33] Probably due to the association with Saint Valentine, amethyst has become the birthstone of February, which is thought to attract love.[37]
Folk traditions

While the European folk traditions connected with Saint Valentine and St. Valentine's Day have become marginalized by the modern Anglo-American customs connecting the day with romantic love, there are some remaining associations connecting the saint with the advent of spring.[citation needed]

While the custom of sending cards, flowers, chocolates and other gifts originated in the UK, Valentine's Day still remains connected with various regional customs in England. In Norfolk, a character called 'Jack' Valentine knocks on the rear door of houses leaving sweets and presents for children. Although he was leaving treats, many children were scared of this mystical person.[38][39]

In Slovenia, Saint Valentine or Zdravko was one of the saints of spring, the saint of good health and the patron of beekeepers and pilgrims.[40] A proverb says that "Saint Valentine brings the keys of roots". Plants and flowers start to grow on this day. It has been celebrated as the day when the first work in the vineyards and in the fields commences. It is also said that birds propose to each other or marry on that day. Another proverb says "Valentin – prvi spomladin" ("Valentine — the first spring saint"), as in some places (especially White Carniola), Saint Valentine marks the beginning of spring.[41] Valentine's Day has only recently been celebrated as the day of love. The day of love was traditionally March 12, the Saint Gregory's day, or February 22, Saint Vincent's Day. The patron of love was Saint Anthony, whose day has been celebrated on June 13.[40]

Connection with romantic love

Lupercalia

Main article: Lupercalia

There is no evidence of any link between St. Valentine's Day and the rites of the ancient Roman festival, despite many claims by many authors.[18][42][notes 1] The celebration of Saint Valentine did not have any romantic connotations until Chaucer's poetry about "Valentines" in the 14th century.[24]

Popular modern sources claim links to unspecified Greco-Roman February holidays alleged to be devoted to fertility and love to St. Valentine's Day, but prior to Chaucer in the 14th century, there were no links between the Saints named Valentinus and romantic love.[24] Earlier links as described above were focused on sacrifice rather than romantic love. In the ancient Athenian calendar the period between mid-January and mid-February was the month of Gamelion, dedicated to the sacred marriage of Zeus and Hera.[citation needed]

In Ancient Rome, Lupercalia, observed February 13–15, was an archaic rite connected to fertility. Lupercalia was a festival local to the city of Rome. The more general Festival of Juno Februa, meaning "Juno the purifier" or "the chaste Juno", was celebrated on February 13–14. Pope Gelasius I (492–496) abolished Lupercalia. Some researchers have theorized that Gelasius I replaced Lupercalia with the celebration of the Purification of Mary in February 14 and claim a connection to the 14th century's connotations of romantic love, but there is no historical indication that he ever intended such a thing.[notes 2][43] Also, the dates don't fit because at the time of Gelasius I the feast was only celebrated in Jerusalem, and it was on February 14 only because Jerusalem placed the Nativity on January 6.[notes 3] Although it was called "Purification of Mary", it dealt mainly with the presentation of Jesus at the temple.[44] The Jerusalem's Purification of Mary on February 14 became the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple on February 2 as it was introduced to Rome and other places in the sixth century, after Gelasius I's time.[44]

Alban Butler in his Lifes of the Principal Saints (1756–1759) claimed without proof that men and women in Lupercalia drew names from a jar to make couples, and that modern Valentine's letters originated from this custom. In reality, this practice originated in the Middle Ages, with no link to Lupercalia, with men drawing the names of girls at random to couple with them. This custom was combated by priests, for example by Frances de Sales around 1600, apparently by replacing it with a religious custom of girls drawing the names of apostles from the altar. However, this religious custom is recorded as soon as the 13th century in the life of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, so it could have a different origin.[18]
["For this was on St. Valentine's Day, when every bird cometh there to choose his mate."]

This poem was written to honor the first anniversary of the engagement of King Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia.[45] A treaty providing for a marriage was signed on May 2, 1381.[46]

Readers have uncritically assumed that Chaucer was referring to February 14 as Valentine's Day; however, mid-February is an unlikely time for birds to be mating in England. Henry Ansgar Kelly has observed that Chaucer might have had in mind the feast day of St. Valentine of Genoa, an early bishop of Genoa who died around AD 307; it was probably celebrated on 3 May.[45][47][48] Jack B. Oruch notes that the date on which spring begins has changed since Chaucer's time because of the precession of the equinoxes and the introduction of the more accurate Gregorian calendar only in 1582. On the Julian calendar in use in Chaucer's time, 14 February would have fallen on the date now called 23 February, a time when some birds have started mating and nesting in England.[24]

Chaucer's Parliament of Foules refers to a supposedly established tradition, but there is no record of such a tradition before Chaucer. The speculative derivation of sentimental customs from the distant past began with 18th-century antiquaries, notably Alban Butler, the author of Butler's Lives of Saints, and have been perpetuated even by respectable modern scholars. Most notably, "the idea that Valentine's Day customs perpetuated those of the Roman Lupercalia has been accepted uncritically and repeated, in various forms, up to the present".[18][49]

Three other authors who made poems about birds mating on St. Valentine's Day around the same years: Otton de Grandson from Savoy, John Gower from England, and a knight called Pardo from Valencia. Chaucer most probably predated all of them but, due to the difficulty of dating medieval works, it is not possible to ascertain which of the four first had the idea and influenced the others.[50]
["For this was on St. Valentine's Day, when every bird cometh there to choose his mate."]

This poem was written to honor the first anniversary of the engagement of King Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia.[45] A treaty providing for a marriage was signed on May 2, 1381.[46]

Readers have uncritically assumed that Chaucer was referring to February 14 as Valentine's Day; however, mid-February is an unlikely time for birds to be mating in England. Henry Ansgar Kelly has observed that Chaucer might have had in mind the feast day of St. Valentine of Genoa, an early bishop of Genoa who died around AD 307; it was probably celebrated on 3 May.[45][47][48] Jack B. Oruch notes that the date on which spring begins has changed since Chaucer's time because of the precession of the equinoxes and the introduction of the more accurate Gregorian calendar only in 1582. On the Julian calendar in use in Chaucer's time, 14 February would have fallen on the date now called 23 February, a time when some birds have started mating and nesting in England.[24]

Chaucer's Parliament of Foules refers to a supposedly established tradition, but there is no record of such a tradition before Chaucer. The speculative derivation of sentimental customs from the distant past began with 18th-century antiquaries, notably Alban Butler, the author of Butler's Lives of Saints, and have been perpetuated even by respectable modern scholars. Most notably, "the idea that Valentine's Day customs perpetuated those of the Roman Lupercalia has been accepted uncritically and repeated, in various forms, up to the present".[18][49]

Three other authors who made poems about birds mating on St. Valentine's Day around the same years: Otton de Grandson from Savoy, John Gower from England, and a knight called Pardo from Valencia. Chaucer most probably predated all of them but, due to the difficulty of dating medieval works, it is not possible to ascertain which of the four first had the idea and influenced the others.[50]
Valentine poetry

The earliest surviving valentine is a 15th-century rondeau written by Charles, Duke of Orléans to his wife, which commences.


Je suis desja d'amour tanné
Ma tres doulce Valentinée...

— Charles d'Orléans, Rondeau VI, lines 1–2[53]

At the time, the duke was being held in the Tower of London following his capture at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415.[54]

The earliest surviving valentines in English appear to be those in the Paston Letters, written in 1477 by Margery Brewes to her future husband John Paston "my right well-beloved Valentine".[55]

Valentine's Day is mentioned ruefully by Ophelia in Hamlet (1600–1601):


To-morrow is Saint Valentine's day,
All in the morning betime,
And I a maid at your window,
To be your Valentine.
Then up he rose, and donn'd his clothes,
And dupp'd the chamber-door;
Let in the maid, that out a maid
Never departed more.

— William Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act IV, Scene 5

John Donne used the legend of the marriage of the birds as the starting point for his epithalamion celebrating the marriage of Elizabeth, daughter of James I of England, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, on Valentine's Day:


Hayle Bishop Valentine whose day this is


All the Ayre is thy Diocese
And all the chirping Queristers
And other birds ar thy parishioners
Thou marryest every yeare
The Lyrick Lark, and the graue whispering Doue,
The Sparrow that neglects his life for loue,
The houshold bird with the redd stomacher
Thou makst the Blackbird speede as soone,
As doth the Goldfinch, or the Halcyon
The Husband Cock lookes out and soone is spedd
And meets his wife, which brings her feather-bed.
This day more cheerfully than ever shine

This day which might inflame thy selfe old Valentine.
— John Donne, Epithalamion Vpon Frederick Count Palatine and the Lady Elizabeth marryed on St. Valentines day

The verse Roses are red echoes conventions traceable as far back as Edmund Spenser's epic The Faerie Queene (1590):


She bath'd with roses red, and violets blew,
And all the sweetest flowres, that in the forrest grew.[56]

The modern cliché Valentine's Day poem can be found in the collection of English nursery rhymes Gammer Gurton's Garland (1784):


The rose is red, the violet's blue,


The honey's sweet, and so are you.
Thou art my love and I am thine;
I drew thee to my Valentine:
The lot was cast and then I drew,

And Fortune said it shou'd be you.[57][58]
In 1797, a British publisher issued The Young Man's Valentine Writer, which contained scores of suggested sentimental verses for the young lover unable to compose his own. Printers had already begun producing a limited number of cards with verses and sketches, called "mechanical valentines," and a reduction in postal rates in the next century ushered in the less personal but easier practice of mailing Valentines. That, in turn, made it possible for the first time to exchange cards anonymously, which is taken as the reason for the sudden appearance of racy verse in an era otherwise prudishly Victorian.[59]

Paper Valentines became so popular in England in the early 19th century that they were assembled in factories. Fancy Valentines were made with real lace and ribbons, with paper lace introduced in the mid-19th century.[60] In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in Britain, despite postage being expensive.[61] The Laura Seddon Greeting Card Collection at Manchester Metropolitan University gathers 450 Valentine's Day cards dating from the early nineteenth century, printed by the major publishers of the day.[62] The collection is cataloged in Laura Seddon's book Victorian Valentines (1996).[63]

In the United States, the first mass-produced valentines of embossed paper lace were produced and sold shortly after 1847 by Esther Howland (1828–1904) of Worcester, Massachusetts.[64][65] Her father operated a large book and stationery store, but Howland took her inspiration from an English Valentine she had received from a business associate of her father.[66][67] Intrigued with the idea of making similar Valentines, Howland began her business by importing paper lace and floral decorations from England.[67][68] A writer in Graham's American Monthly observed in 1849, "Saint Valentine's Day ... is becoming, nay it has become, a national holyday."[69] The English practice of sending Valentine's cards was established enough to feature as a plot device in Elizabeth Gaskell's Mr. Harrison's Confessions (1851): "I burst in with my explanations: 'The valentine I know nothing about.' 'It is in your handwriting', said he coldly."[70] Since 2001, the Greeting Card Association has been giving an annual "Esther Howland Award for a Greeting Card Visionary".[65]






Valentines candy




Valentine's Day red roses




Box of Valentine chocolates

Since the 19th century, handwritten notes have given way to mass-produced greeting cards.[7] In the UK, just under half of the population spend money on their Valentines and around £1.3 billion is spent yearly on cards, flowers, chocolates and other gifts, with an estimated 25 million cards being sent.[71] The mid-19th century Valentine's Day trade was a harbinger of further commercialized holidays in the United States to follow.[72]

In the second half of the 20th century, the practice of exchanging cards was extended to all manner of gifts. Such gifts typically include roses, and chocolates packed in a red satin, heart-shaped box. In the 1980s, the diamond industry began to promote Valentine's Day as an occasion for giving jewelry.[citation needed]

The U.S. Greeting Card Association estimates that approximately 190 million valentines are sent each year in the US. Half of those valentines are given to family members other than husband or wife, usually to children. When the valentine-exchange cards made in school activities are included the figure goes up to 1 billion, and teachers become the people receiving the most valentines.[64] The average valentine’s spending has increased every year in the U.S, from $108 a person in 2010 to $131 in 2013.[73]

The rise of Internet popularity at the turn of the millennium is creating new traditions. Millions of people use, every year, digital means of creating and sending Valentine's Day greeting messages such as e-cards, love coupons or printable greeting cards. An estimated 15 million e-valentines were sent in 2010.[64] Valentine's Day is considered by some to be a Hallmark holiday due to its commercialization.[74]

In the modern era, liturgically, the Anglican Church has a service for St. Valentine's Day (the Feast of St. Valentine), which includes the optional rite of the renewal of marriage vows.[75] In 2016, Catholic Bishops of England and Wales established a novena prayer "to support single people seeking a spouse ahead of St Valentine’s Day."[76]
Latin America

In some Latin American countries Saint Valentine's Day is known as "el día de los enamorados" (day of lovers)[78] or as "Día del Amor y la Amistad" (Day of Love and Friendship). For example, Colombia,[79] Costa Rica,[80] Mexico,[81] and Puerto Rico, as well as others. It is also common to see people perform "acts of appreciation" for their friends. In Guatemala it is known as the "Día del Cariño" (Affection Day).[82]

In Brazil, the Dia dos Namorados (lit. "Lovers' Day", or "Boyfriends'/Girlfriends' Day") is celebrated on June 12, probably because that is the day before Saint Anthony's day, known there as the marriage saint,[83] when traditionally many single women perform popular rituals, called simpatias, in order to find a good husband or boyfriend. Couples exchange gifts, chocolates, cards and flower bouquets. The February 14 Valentine's Day is not celebrated at all because it usually falls too little before or too little after the Brazilian Carnival[84] — that can fall anywhere from early February to early March and lasts almost a week. Because of the absence of Valentine's Day and due to the celebrations of the Carnivals, Brazil is a popular tourist spot during February for Western singles who want to get away from the holiday.[85]

In most of Latin America the Día del amor y la amistad and the Amigo secreto ("Secret friend") are quite popular and are usually celebrated together on February 14 (one exception is Colombia, where it is celebrated on the third Saturday in September). The latter consists of randomly assigning to each participant a recipient who is to be given an anonymous gift (similar to the Christmas tradition of Secret Santa).[citation needed]

United States





Tree in San Diego decorated with hearts on Valentine's Day
In the United States, about 190 million Valentine's Day cards are sent each year, not including the hundreds of millions of cards school children exchange.[86] Additionally, in recent decades Valentine's Day has become increasingly commercialized and a popular gift-giving event, with Valentine’s Day themed advertisements encouraging spending on loved ones. In fact, in the United States alone, the average valentine’s spending has increased every year, from $108 a person in 2010 to $131 in 2013.[73]
China

In Chinese, Valentine's Day is called lovers' festival (simplified Chinese: 情人节; traditional Chinese: 情人節; pinyin: qíng rén jié). The "Chinese Valentine's Day" is the Qixi Festival, celebrated on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar. It commemorates a day on which a legendary cowherder and weaving maid are allowed to be together. In Chinese culture, there is an older observance related to lovers, called "The Night of Sevens" (Chinese: 七夕; pinyin: Qi Xi). According to the legend, the Cowherd star and the Weaver Maid star are normally separated by the Milky Way (silvery river) but are allowed to meet by crossing it on the 7th day of the 7th month of the Chinese calendar.[citation needed]

In recent years, celebrating White Day has also become fashionable among some young people.[citation needed]

India

In India, in antiquity, there was a tradition of adoring Kamadeva, the lord of love; exemplificated by the erotic carvings in the Khajuraho Group of Monuments and by the writing of the Kamasutra treaty of lovemaking.[87] This tradition was lost around the Middle Ages, when Kamadeva was no longer celebrated, and public displays of sexual affection became frowned upon.[87] This repression of public affections persisted until the 1990s.[citation needed]

Valentine's Day celebrations did not catch on in India until around 1992. It was spread due to the programs in commercial TV channels, such as MTV, dedicated radio programs and love letter competitions, in addition to an economical liberalization that allowed the explosion of the valentine card industry.[87][88] Economic liberalization also helped the Valentine card industry.[88] The celebration has caused a sharp change on how people have been displaying their affection in public since the Middle Ages.[87]

In modern times, Hindu and Islamic[89] traditionalists have considered the holiday to be cultural contamination from the West, a result of the globalization in India.[87][88] Shiv Sena and the Sangh Parivar have asked their followers to shun the holiday and the "public admission of love" because of them being "alien to Indian culture".[90] Although these protests are organized by political elites, the protesters themselves are middle-class Hindu men who fear that the globalization will destroy the traditions in their society: arranged marriages, Hindu joint families, full-time mothers, etc.[88][89]

Despite these obstacles, Valentine's Day is becoming increasingly popular in India.[91]

Valentine's Day has been strongly criticized from a postcolonial perspective by intellectuals from the Indian left. The holiday is regarded as a front for "Western imperialism", "neocolonialism", and "the exploitation of working classes through commercialism by multinational corporations".[92] It is claimed that as a result of Valentine's Day, the working classes and rural poor become more disconnected socially, politically, and geographically from the hegemonic capitalist power structure. They also criticize mainstream media attacks on Indians opposed to Valentine's Day as a form of demonization that is designed and derived to further the Valentine's Day agenda.[93][94] Right wing Hindu nationalists are also hostile. In February 2012, Subash Chouhan of the Bajrang Dal warned couples that "They cannot kiss or hug in public places. Our activists will beat them up".[95] He said "We are not against love, but we criticize vulgar exhibition of love at public places".[96]
China

In Chinese, Valentine's Day is called lovers' festival (simplified Chinese: 情人节; traditional Chinese: 情人節; pinyin: qíng rén jié). The "Chinese Valentine's Day" is the Qixi Festival, celebrated on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar. It commemorates a day on which a legendary cowherder and weaving maid are allowed to be together. In Chinese culture, there is an older observance related to lovers, called "The Night of Sevens" (Chinese: 七夕; pinyin: Qi Xi). According to the legend, the Cowherd star and the Weaver Maid star are normally separated by the Milky Way (silvery river) but are allowed to meet by crossing it on the 7th day of the 7th month of the Chinese calendar.[citation needed]

In recent years, celebrating White Day has also become fashionable among some young people.[citation needed]

India

In India, in antiquity, there was a tradition of adoring Kamadeva, the lord of love; exemplificated by the erotic carvings in the Khajuraho Group of Monuments and by the writing of the Kamasutra treaty of lovemaking.[87] This tradition was lost around the Middle Ages, when Kamadeva was no longer celebrated, and public displays of sexual affection became frowned upon.[87] This repression of public affections persisted until the 1990s.[citation needed]

Valentine's Day celebrations did not catch on in India until around 1992. It was spread due to the programs in commercial TV channels, such as MTV, dedicated radio programs and love letter competitions, in addition to an economical liberalization that allowed the explosion of the valentine card industry.[87][88] Economic liberalization also helped the Valentine card industry.[88] The celebration has caused a sharp change on how people have been displaying their affection in public since the Middle Ages.[87]

In modern times, Hindu and Islamic[89] traditionalists have considered the holiday to be cultural contamination from the West, a result of the globalization in India.[87][88] Shiv Sena and the Sangh Parivar have asked their followers to shun the holiday and the "public admission of love" because of them being "alien to Indian culture".[90] Although these protests are organized by political elites, the protesters themselves are middle-class Hindu men who fear that the globalization will destroy the traditions in their society: arranged marriages, Hindu joint families, full-time mothers, etc.[88][89]

Despite these obstacles, Valentine's Day is becoming increasingly popular in India.[91]

Valentine's Day has been strongly criticized from a postcolonial perspective by intellectuals from the Indian left. The holiday is regarded as a front for "Western imperialism", "neocolonialism", and "the exploitation of working classes through commercialism by multinational corporations".[92] It is claimed that as a result of Valentine's Day, the working classes and rural poor become more disconnected socially, politically, and geographically from the hegemonic capitalist power structure. They also criticize mainstream media attacks on Indians opposed to Valentine's Day as a form of demonization that is designed and derived to further the Valentine's Day agenda.[93][94] Right wing Hindu nationalists are also hostile. In February 2012, Subash Chouhan of the Bajrang Dal warned couples that "They cannot kiss or hug in public places. Our activists will beat them up".[95] He said "We are not against love, but we criticize vulgar exhibition of love at public places".[96]
China

In Chinese, Valentine's Day is called lovers' festival (simplified Chinese: 情人节; traditional Chinese: 情人節; pinyin: qíng rén jié). The "Chinese Valentine's Day" is the Qixi Festival, celebrated on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar. It commemorates a day on which a legendary cowherder and weaving maid are allowed to be together. In Chinese culture, there is an older observance related to lovers, called "The Night of Sevens" (Chinese: 七夕; pinyin: Qi Xi). According to the legend, the Cowherd star and the Weaver Maid star are normally separated by the Milky Way (silvery river) but are allowed to meet by crossing it on the 7th day of the 7th month of the Chinese calendar.[citation needed]

In recent years, celebrating White Day has also become fashionable among some young people.[citation needed]

India

In India, in antiquity, there was a tradition of adoring Kamadeva, the lord of love; exemplificated by the erotic carvings in the Khajuraho Group of Monuments and by the writing of the Kamasutra treaty of lovemaking.[87] This tradition was lost around the Middle Ages, when Kamadeva was no longer celebrated, and public displays of sexual affection became frowned upon.[87] This repression of public affections persisted until the 1990s.[citation needed]

Valentine's Day celebrations did not catch on in India until around 1992. It was spread due to the programs in commercial TV channels, such as MTV, dedicated radio programs and love letter competitions, in addition to an economical liberalization that allowed the explosion of the valentine card industry.[87][88] Economic liberalization also helped the Valentine card industry.[88] The celebration has caused a sharp change on how people have been displaying their affection in public since the Middle Ages.[87]

In modern times, Hindu and Islamic[89] traditionalists have considered the holiday to be cultural contamination from the West, a result of the globalization in India.[87][88] Shiv Sena and the Sangh Parivar have asked their followers to shun the holiday and the "public admission of love" because of them being "alien to Indian culture".[90] Although these protests are organized by political elites, the protesters themselves are middle-class Hindu men who fear that the globalization will destroy the traditions in their society: arranged marriages, Hindu joint families, full-time mothers, etc.[88][89]

Despite these obstacles, Valentine's Day is becoming increasingly popular in India.[91]

Valentine's Day has been strongly criticized from a postcolonial perspective by intellectuals from the Indian left. The holiday is regarded as a front for "Western imperialism", "neocolonialism", and "the exploitation of working classes through commercialism by multinational corporations".[92] It is claimed that as a result of Valentine's Day, the working classes and rural poor become more disconnected socially, politically, and geographically from the hegemonic capitalist power structure. They also criticize mainstream media attacks on Indians opposed to Valentine's Day as a form of demonization that is designed and derived to further the Valentine's Day agenda.[93][94] Right wing Hindu nationalists are also hostile. In February 2012, Subash Chouhan of the Bajrang Dal warned couples that "They cannot kiss or hug in public places. Our activists will beat them up".[95] He said "We are not against love, but we criticize vulgar exhibition of love at public places".[96]
China

In Chinese, Valentine's Day is called lovers' festival (simplified Chinese: 情人节; traditional Chinese: 情人節; pinyin: qíng rén jié). The "Chinese Valentine's Day" is the Qixi Festival, celebrated on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar. It commemorates a day on which a legendary cowherder and weaving maid are allowed to be together. In Chinese culture, there is an older observance related to lovers, called "The Night of Sevens" (Chinese: 七夕; pinyin: Qi Xi). According to the legend, the Cowherd star and the Weaver Maid star are normally separated by the Milky Way (silvery river) but are allowed to meet by crossing it on the 7th day of the 7th month of the Chinese calendar.[citation needed]

In recent years, celebrating White Day has also become fashionable among some young people.[citation needed]

India

In India, in antiquity, there was a tradition of adoring Kamadeva, the lord of love; exemplificated by the erotic carvings in the Khajuraho Group of Monuments and by the writing of the Kamasutra treaty of lovemaking.[87] This tradition was lost around the Middle Ages, when Kamadeva was no longer celebrated, and public displays of sexual affection became frowned upon.[87] This repression of public affections persisted until the 1990s.[citation needed]

Valentine's Day celebrations did not catch on in India until around 1992. It was spread due to the programs in commercial TV channels, such as MTV, dedicated radio programs and love letter competitions, in addition to an economical liberalization that allowed the explosion of the valentine card industry.[87][88] Economic liberalization also helped the Valentine card industry.[88] The celebration has caused a sharp change on how people have been displaying their affection in public since the Middle Ages.[87]

In modern times, Hindu and Islamic[89] traditionalists have considered the holiday to be cultural contamination from the West, a result of the globalization in India.[87][88] Shiv Sena and the Sangh Parivar have asked their followers to shun the holiday and the "public admission of love" because of them being "alien to Indian culture".[90] Although these protests are organized by political elites, the protesters themselves are middle-class Hindu men who fear that the globalization will destroy the traditions in their society: arranged marriages, Hindu joint families, full-time mothers, etc.[88][89]

Despite these obstacles, Valentine's Day is becoming increasingly popular in India.[91]

Valentine's Day has been strongly criticized from a postcolonial perspective by intellectuals from the Indian left. The holiday is regarded as a front for "Western imperialism", "neocolonialism", and "the exploitation of working classes through commercialism by multinational corporations".[92] It is claimed that as a result of Valentine's Day, the working classes and rural poor become more disconnected socially, politically, and geographically from the hegemonic capitalist power structure. They also criticize mainstream media attacks on Indians opposed to Valentine's Day as a form of demonization that is designed and derived to further the Valentine's Day agenda.[93][94] Right wing Hindu nationalists are also hostile. In February 2012, Subash Chouhan of the Bajrang Dal warned couples that "They cannot kiss or hug in public places. Our activists will beat them up".[95] He said "We are not against love, but we criticize vulgar exhibition of love at public places".[96]
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
ポトマック川の北岸に位置し、南西をバージニア州に、その他の方角をメリーランド州に接している。2010年度国勢調査による人口は601,723人[2]で全米24位だが、労働時間帯には近郊からの通勤者により人口100万を超える。ワシントンD.C.を中心に、メリーランド州、バージニア州北部、ウェストバージニア州の最東部2郡を併せた地域を一般に「首都圏」または「メトロポリタン」と呼んでいるが、その人口は5,582,170人（2010年国勢調査）[2]で、全米7位である。また北東に約65キロメートルの地には人口620,961人（2010年国勢調査）を抱えるメリーランド州の最大都市ボルチモア[2]が位置している。このボルチモアといわゆる首都圏を併せたワシントン・ボルチモア・北バージニア広域都市圏[† 2]の人口は8,572,971人（2010年国勢調査）[2]を数え、全米4位の規模である。

アメリカ合衆国憲法1条により、各州とは別に、恒久的な首都としての役割を果たすため連邦の管轄する区域が与えられている。アメリカ合衆国三権機関（大統領官邸（「ホワイトハウス」）、連邦議会（議会議事堂）、連邦最高裁判所）が所在し連邦機関が集まる他、多くの国の記念建造物や博物館（スミソニアン博物館など）も置かれている。

中心部には高さ169メートル（約555フィート）のワシントン記念塔がある。

同市のナショナル・モールにおける博物館群は質・量ともに世界でもトップクラスであり、観光資源にもなっている。ポトマック川の入り江であるタイダルベイスンの畔にある桜の木々は、アメリカ合衆国内で有数の桜の花見の名所となっており、毎年全米桜祭りが開催される。

172か国の大使館に加え、世界銀行、国際通貨基金 (IMF)、米州機構 (OAS)、米州開発銀行、汎アメリカ保健機関 (PAHO) の本部も置かれている。労働組合、ロビイスト、職業組合など、各種団体の本部もある。

連邦議会がワシントンD.C.における権限を有している。連邦議会に関してワシントンD.C.は、下院に本会議での投票権を持たない市代表（代議員）を選出しているものの、上院議員の議席は与えられていない。ワシントンD.C.が州であると仮定し他の州と比較すれば、面積ではロードアイランド州に後れて最下位、人口では最下位から2番目（最下位はワイオミング州）であるが、人口密度では1位、州民総生産では35位、また黒人の比率では1位であり、国全体のマジョリティ（非ヒスパニック系白人）とマイノリティとは反転している。

2011年現在、ワシントンD.C.においては死刑制度が廃止されている。2014年、アメリカのシンクタンクが公表したビジネス・人材・文化・政治などを対象とした総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界第10位の都市と評価されており、アメリカではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルス、シカゴに次ぐ第4位であった[3]。
  • Shani
  • Submitted: 04/10/2016
I like your car and I want to buy the car. I will only deal face to face and I will like to pay cash!
The car looks good from the pictures. I need to know the last price! I have a loan approved and I must know from the start how much to pick up. Please be fair about it


they took money from my credit card too, Fake...
  • Arro
  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
The Amazon River (US /ˈæməzɒn/ or UK /ˈæməzən/; Spanish and Portuguese: Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge of water in the world, and the second in length.

Although the headwaters of the Apurímac river on Nevado Mismi have been considered for nearly a century as the Amazon’s most distant source, a 2014 study indicates that the Cordillera Rumi Cruz at the headwaters of the Mantaro river in Peru is the Amazon’s most distant source.[4] The Mantaro and Apurímac confluence, and with other tributaries form the Ucayali, which in turn confluences with the River Marañón upstream of Iquitos, Peru, to form what countries other than Brazil consider to be the main stem of the Amazon. For Brazil this section of the river is the Solimões until it confluences with the Rio Negro[5] at the Meeting of Waters (Portuguese: Encontro das Águas) at Manaus, the river's largest city.

At an average discharge of about 209,000 cubic metres per second (7,400,000 cu ft/s; 209,000,000 L/s; 55,000,000 USgal/s) — approximately 6,591 cubic kilometres per annum (1,581 cu mi/a), greater than the next seven largest independent rivers combined — the Amazon represents 20% of the global riverine discharge to the ocean.[6] The Amazon basin is the largest drainage basin in the world, with an area of approximately 7,050,000 square kilometres (2,720,000 sq mi), and accounts for roughly one-fifth of the world's total river flow. The portion of the river's drainage basin in Brazil alone is larger than any other river's basin. The Amazon enters Brazil with only one-fifth of the flow it finally discharges into the Atlantic Ocean, yet already has a greater flow at this point than the discharge of any other river.[7][8]

The river enters the Atlantic Ocean in north-eastern Brazil in a broad estuary about 240 kilometres (150 mi) wide. The mouth of the main stem is 80 kilometres (50 mi). The width of the Amazon is between 1.6 and 10 kilometres (1.0 and 6.2 mi) at low stage, but expands during the wet season to 48 kilometres (30 mi) or more.[9] Because of its vast dimensions, it is sometimes called "The River Sea".
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  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
There is ample evidence that the areas surrounding the Amazon River were home to complex and large-scale indigenous societies, mainly chiefdoms who developed large towns and cities. Archeologists estimate that by the time the Spanish conquistador Orellana journeyed across the Amazon in 1541, more than 3 million Indians lived around the Amazon.[11] These pre-Columbian settlements created highly developed civilizations. For instance, pre-Columbian indigenous people on the island of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population of 100,000 people. In order to achieve this level of development, the Native Americans of the Amazon rain forest altered the forest’s ecology by selective cultivation and the use of fire. Scientists argue that by burning areas of the forest repetitiously, the indigenous people caused the soil to become rich in nutrients. This created dark soil areas known as terra preta de índio (Indian Dark Earth).[12] Because of the Terra Petra, indigenous communities were able to make land fertile and thus sustainable for the large-scale agriculture needed to support their large populations and complex social structures. Further research has hypothesized that this practice began around 11,000 years ago. Some say that its effects on forest ecology and regional climate explain the otherwise inexplicable band of lower rainfall through the Amazon basin.[13]

Many indigenous tribes engaged in constant warfare. James Stuart Olson wrote: "The Munduruku expansion dislocated and displaced the Kawahíb, breaking the tribe down into much smaller groups ... [Munduruku] first came to the attention of Europeans in 1770 when they began a series of widespread attacks on Brazilian settlements along the Amazon River."[14]
  • Arro
  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
Gonzalo Pizarro set off in 1541 to explore east of Quito into the South American interior in search of El Dorado, the "city of gold" and La Canela, the "valley of cinnamon".[16] He was accompanied by his second-in-command Francisco de Orellana. After 170 km, the Coca River joined the Napo River (at a point now known as Puerto Francisco de Orellana); the party stopped for a few weeks to build a boat just upriver from this confluence. They continued downriver through an uninhabited area, where they could not find food. Orellana offered and was ordered to follow the Napo River, then known as Río de la Canela ("Cinnamon River") and return with food for the party. Based on intelligence received from a captive native chief named Delicola, they expected to find food within a few days downriver by ascending another river to the north.





Samuel Fritz's 1707 map showing the Amazon and the Orinoco
Orellana took about 57 men, the boat, and some canoes and left Pizarro's party on 26 December 1541. However, Orellana apparently missed the confluence (probably with the Aguarico) where he was to look for food. By the time he and his men reached another village many of them were sick from hunger and eating "noxious plants", and near death. Seven men died at that village. His men threatened to mutiny if he followed his orders and the expedition turned back to join Pizarro's larger party. He accepted to change the purpose of the expedition to discover new lands in the name of the King of Spain, and the men built a larger boat in which to navigate downstream. After a journey of 600 km down the Napo River they reached a further major confluence, at a point near modern Iquitos, and then followed the upper Amazon, now known as the Solimões, for a further 1,200 km to its confluence with the Rio Negro (near modern Manaus), which they reached on 3 June 1542. On the Nhamunda River, a tributary of the Amazon downstream from Manaus, Orellana's party had a fierce battle with warriors who, they reported, were led by fierce female warriors who beat the men to death with clubs if they tried to retreat.[citation needed] Orellana's men began referring to the women as Amazons, a reference to the women of Greek Mythology. The river was initially known as the Marañón (the name by which the Peruvian part of the river is still known today) or Rio de Orellana. It later became known as the Rio Amazonas, the name by which it is still known in both Spanish and Portuguese.

Regarding the initial mission of finding cinnamon, Pizarro reported to the King that they had found cinnamon trees, but that they could not be profitably harvested. In fact, true cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) is not native to South America. Other related cinnamon-containing plants (of the family Lauraceae) are fairly common in that part of the Amazon and Pizarro probably saw some of these. The expedition reached the mouth of the Amazon on 24 August 1542, demonstrating the practical navigability of the Great River.





Mundurukú Indians. Painted by Hercules Florence
In 1560, another Spanish conquistador, Lope de Aguirre, may have made the second descent of the Amazon. Historians are uncertain whether the river he descended was the Amazon or the Orinoco River, which runs more or less parallel to the Amazon further north.

Portuguese explorer Pedro Teixeira was the first European to travel up the entire river. He arrived in Quito in 1637, and then returned via the same route.[17]
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  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
The Cabanagem revolt (1835–1840) was directed against the white ruling class. It is estimated that from 30 to 40% of the population of Grão-Pará, estimated at 100,000 people, died.[19]

The total population of the Brazilian portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of whom about two-thirds were Europeans and slaves, the slaves amounting to about 25,000. The Brazilian Amazon's principal commercial city, Pará (now Belém), had from 10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of Manáos, now Manaus, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had a population between 1,000 and 1,500. All the remaining villages, as far up as Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were relatively small.

On 6 September 1850, Emperor Pedro II of Brazil sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon and gave the Viscount of Mauá (Irineu Evangelista de Sousa) the task of putting it into effect. He organized the "Companhia de Navegação e Comércio do Amazonas" in Rio de Janeiro in 1852; in the following year it commenced operations with four small steamers, the Monarca ('Monarch'), the Cametá, the Marajó and the Rio Negro.[20]





Amazonas state
At first, navigation was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 a modification of the government contract only obliged the company to a monthly service between Pará and Manaus, with steamers of 200 tons cargo capacity, a second line to make six round voyages a year between Manaus and Tabatinga, and a third, two trips a month between Pará and Cametá. This was the first step in opening up the vast interior.

The success of the venture called attention to the opportunities for economic exploitation of the Amazon, and a second company soon opened commerce on the Madeira, Purús and Negro; a third established a line between Pará and Manaus; and a fourth found it profitable to navigate some of the smaller streams. In that same period, the Amazonas Company was increasing its fleet. Meanwhile, private individuals were building and running small steam craft of their own on the main river as well as on many of its tributaries.

On 31 July 1867, the government of Brazil, constantly pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling the upper Amazon basin, especially Peru, decreed the opening of the Amazon to all countries, but they limited this to certain defined points: Tabatinga – on the Amazon; Cametá – on the Tocantins; Santarém – on the Tapajós; Borba – on the Madeira, and Manaus – on the Rio Negro. The Brazilian decree took effect on 7 September 1867.





Amazon Theatre opera house in Manaus built in 1896 during the rubber boom
Thanks in part to the mercantile development associated with steamboat navigation coupled with the internationally driven demand for natural rubber, the Peruvian city of Iquitos became a thriving, cosmopolitan center of commerce. Foreign companies settled in Iquitos, from whence they controlled the extraction of rubber. In 1851, Iquitos had a population of 200, and by 1900 its population reached 20,000. In the 1860s, approximately 3,000 tons of rubber was being exported annually, and by 1911 annual exports had grown to 44,000 tons, representing 9.3% of Peru's exports.[21] During the rubber boom it is estimated that diseases brought by immigrants, such as typhus and malaria, killed 40,000 native Amazonians.[22]

The first direct foreign trade with Manaus commenced around 1874. Local trade along the river was carried on by the English successors to the Amazonas Company—the Amazon Steam Navigation Company—as well as numerous small steamboats, belonging to companies and firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, Purús and many other tributaries, such as the Marañón, to ports as distant as Nauta, Peru.

By the turn of the 20th century, the exports of the Amazon basin were India-rubber, cacao beans, Brazil nuts and a few other products of minor importance, such as pelts and exotic forest produce (resins, barks, woven hammocks, prized bird feathers, live animals) and extracted goods, such as lumber and gold.
  • Arro
  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
Since colonial times, the Portuguese portion of the Amazon basin has remained a land largely undeveloped by agriculture and occupied by indigenous people who survived the arrival of European diseases.

Four centuries after the European discovery of the Amazon river, the total cultivated area in its basin was probably less than 65 square kilometres (25 sq mi), excluding the limited and crudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters. This situation changed dramatically during the 20th century.

Wary of foreign exploitation of the nation's resources, Brazilian governments in the 1940s set out to develop the interior, away from the seaboard where foreigners owned large tracts of land. The original architect of this expansion was President Getúlio Vargas, with the demand for rubber from the Allied forces in World War II providing funding for the drive.

In 1960, the construction of the new capital city of Brasília in the interior also contributed to the opening up of the Amazon basin. A large-scale colonization program saw families from northeastern Brazil relocated to the forests, encouraged by promises of cheap land. Many settlements grew along the road from Brasília to Belém, but rainforest soil proved difficult to cultivate.

Still, long-term development plans continued. Roads were cut through the forests, and in 1970, the work on the Trans-Amazonian Highway (Transamazônica) network began. The network's three pioneering highways were completed within ten years but never fulfilled their promise. Large portions of the Trans-Amazonian and its accessory roads, such as BR-319 (Manaus-Porto Velho), are derelict and impassable in the rainy season. Small towns and villages are scattered across the forest, and because its vegetation is so dense, some remote areas are still unexplored.

With a population of 1.9 million people in 2014, Manaus is the largest city on the Amazon. Manaus alone makes up approximately 50% of the population of the largest Brazilian state of Amazonas. The racial makeup of the city is 64% Pardo (Mulatto and mestizo) and 32% White.[23]

Although the Amazon river remains largely undammed, around 412 dams are in operation in the Amazon’s tributary rivers. From these 412 dams, 151 are constructed over six of the main tributary rivers that drain into the Amazon.[24] Since only 4 percent of the Amazon’s hydropower potential has been developed in countries like Brazil,[25] more damming projects are underway and hundreds more are planned.[26] After witnessing the negative effects of environmental degradation, sedimentation, navigation and flood control caused by the Three Gorges Dam in the Yangtze River,[27] scientists are worried that constructing more dams in the Amazon will harm its biodiversity in the same way by “blocking-fish spawning runs, reducing the flows of vital oil nutrients and clearing forests”.[26] Damming the Amazon River could potentially bring about the “end of free flowing rivers” and contribute to an “ecosystem collapse” that will cause major social problems
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Several geological factors have played a vital role in the formation and existence of these subterranean water bodies. The large deep aquifer formed when the plate carrying the Pacific Ocean bottom was dragged and ends up under the continental plate.[citation needed] Water at such depths would normally escape upwards but the unusual conditions that exist along the eastern Pacific Rim allow the moisture to remain intact. In the case of the Hamza, the porous and permeable sedimentary rocks behave as conduits for the water to sink to greater depths. East-west trending faults and the karst topography present along the northern border of the Amazon basin may have some role in supplying water to the "river". If the impermeable rocks stop the vertical flow, the west to east gradient of the topography directs it to flow towards the Atlantic Ocean
  • Arro
  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
Several geological factors have played a vital role in the formation and existence of these subterranean water bodies. The large deep aquifer formed when the plate carrying the Pacific Ocean bottom was dragged and ends up under the continental plate.[citation needed] Water at such depths would normally escape upwards but the unusual conditions that exist along the eastern Pacific Rim allow the moisture to remain intact. In the case of the Hamza, the porous and permeable sedimentary rocks behave as conduits for the water to sink to greater depths. East-west trending faults and the karst topography present along the northern border of the Amazon basin may have some role in supplying water to the "river". If the impermeable rocks stop the vertical flow, the west to east gradient of the topography directs it to flow towards the Atlantic Ocean
  • Arro
  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
More About ELSM

ELSM has consistently been at the top of the list in terms of per case settlement dollars obtained for its asbestos clients. We have dedicated extensive resources to gathering information and evidence against the asbestos industry. We will explain the multiple paths to follow to maximize your recovery against asbestos manufacturers and suppliers. We will discuss with you the options of lawsuits, out of court settlements, and claims in the bankruptcy courts. We will seek to determine and advise you as to the best course of action in your case. In many cases, we can obtain settlement offers from certain asbestos manufacturers within a few months of retention.

We urge you to consider our extensive database of medical information, mesothelioma treatment options, and product identification that dates back to the 1930s when choosing your legal representation. Our website contains the most up-to-date information from the best sources; it is a source of pride, and we hope that it shows. Maintaining the site and adding new material is a daily process because our clients indicate they want it that way. In fact, Early, Lucarelli, Sweeney & Meisenkothen is often approached by doctors and world medical conferences, asking if they can place information on our website. Of course, we answer yes. Moreover, we are a nationally recognized law firm, which runs at the forefront of asbestos litigation, as we are intimately involved with current legal and political events regarding asbestos. We urge you to contact Early, Lucarelli, Sweeney & Meisenkothen first.

Nationwide Experience

We represent clients in every state across the Nation. See where we’ve worked in your state.

Recent Settlements

See some of the recent settlements that we’ve negotiated on behalf of our clients.

12 Reasons to Hire ELSM

Learn why we are a top mesothelioma law firm and what we’ll do to get top results for you.

Client Testimonials

We are honored to work with each and every one of our clients and are always happy to hear when we’ve exceeded their expectations.

Client Profiles

We represent a wide range of clients who have been diagnosed with mesothelioma.

Common Questions

In this section we provide comprehensive answers to your most frequently asked questions.

We Are a National Mesothelioma and Asbestos Law Firm

With experience you can trust, Early, Lucarelli, Sweeney & Meisenkothen is a nationwide firm dedicated exclusively to representing victims in mesothelioma lawsuits. Having over two decades of asbestos law experience, we represent in excess of one thousand eight hundred victims of asbestos disease in their cases against the asbestos industry. We are currently licensed to practice in: California, Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Washington, D.C. and have developed close working relationships with reputable mesothelioma attorneys throughout the United States. Click on a state below to get information about filing a mesothelioma lawsuit in your state.
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  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
Mesothelioma Lawyer
Mesothelioma Lawyer
Choosing a good mesothelioma lawyer is imperative to ensuring that you will be awarded the highest amount of compensation for your case.

Attorneys who specialize in asbestos litigation have experience with and knowledge about the complex issues, medical considerations, and history surrounding asbestos legislation, case law, and the applicable procedural rules and formalities of each and every case they handle.

Qualities of a Great Mesothelioma Lawyer

When seeking out an attorney who can help you receive compensation for your asbestos-related injury, there are several qualities you should look for.
UnderstandingA great mesothelioma lawyer is compassionate, understanding, and sensitive to what you and your family are going through. They will take the time to understand your situation, listen to the concerns you have, and comprehend the problems and complications you are facing. If your attorney is not willing to sit down and understand how asbestos exposure has affected your life, then find one who will.KnowledgeableThe best mesothelioma attorneys focus exclusively on asbestos litigation. In doing so, they develop expertise with all matters of asbestos law, from environmental quality regulations to the details and nuances of legal procedural matters. Having a solid grasp of both federal and state asbestos laws, they will be able to advise you properly about the best venue in which to file your complaint, and they can provide you with a realistic estimate of how much you might be eligible to receive for a settlement.ResourcefulPutting together a mesothelioma lawsuit takes time and a lot of hard work. Only the best lawyers will have the proper resources to pull together the required information, documentation, testimony, affidavits, complaints, and other materials necessary to build a solid case for you. Having the right resources available ensures that your case will be handled efficiently and will help you to receive compensation quickly.ExperiencedOnly highly experienced mesothelioma lawyers win the largest settlements for their clients. Look for an attorney who has a documented proven track record with handling asbestos-related cases when seeking compensation for your injury.RecognizedGreat mesothelioma attorneys are recognized by their peers and national organizations like Martindale-Hubbell for their excellence in going above and beyond to fight for their clients’ legal rights. Settle for nothing less than a lawyer you can trust, a lawyer who can deliver results, and a lawyer who is recognized by industry leaders and peers.
Finding a Mesothelioma Law Firm

Finding a reputable mesothelioma law firm with attorneys who are understanding and compassionate, and at the same time willing to fight hard on your behalf, is essential to making sure you receive the highest level of compensation for your injury.
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  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
Mesothelioma Law Firm


For decades, mesothelioma, a life-threatening disease that can affect the lungs, abdomen, and several other major organs, has been linked to prolonged exposure to asbestos, resulting in numerous people seeking a law firm specializing in mesothelioma to help them cover the overwhelming expenses associated with the disease.Typically, mesothelioma victims were exposed to asbestos while working at a job site that used asbestos-containing materials (ACMs). In many cases, the manufacturers of asbestos and ACMs knew of the hidden dangers and risks of asbestos, yet failed to inform the public, as asbestos was an extremely profitable mineral. Because of the hinderance of information, workers who developed health issues from asbestos exposure may be eligible for financial compensation to cover expenses such as lost wages, medical bills, emotional suffering, physical pain, and more.

If you suffer from mesothelioma or asbestos-related lung cancer, you may be eligible for a large amount of compensation. Currently, there is over $30 billion in asbestos trust funds, set up for those who have been diagnosed with an asbestos-related illness. Use our free Asbestos Attorney Locator Tool to find a top mesothelioma law firm in your area.
What Does a Mesothelioma Law Firm Do?

Law firms specializing in mesothelioma are different from any other type of law firm. Whereas other firms may specialize in areas like car accidents or nursing home abuse, mesothelioma law firms focus primarily on mesothelioma and other asbestos-related diseases. It’s not recommended to retain legal representation from a general practice law firm or even a personal injury firm that specializes in a wide array of injury cases. You’ll need an attorney who specifically specializes in mesothelioma cases, as these types of lawsuits are extremely intricate and require vast, in-depth understanding of asbestos exposure and diseases.

Attorneys at these law firms have knowledge and experience regarding federal and state laws concerning asbestos use and its history in the workforce. They also have sharp investigative skills and are able to dig deep to uncover when and where companies and/or other entities exposed workers to asbestos. Additionally, these law firms are comprised of educated attorneys who understand the legal process involving courts, trials, settlements, and appeals.

Moreover, an experienced firm understands that the victim is already suffering enough because of the medical and financial problems associated with asbestos-related diseases. As a result, the firm will handle most everything regarding the lawsuit, including fighting for the legal rights of the client, interviewing witnesses, obtaining medical history, litigations, and more.

A dedicated mesothelioma law firm also understands the severe emotional impact that living with mesothelioma brings, not only to victims, but to family members and loved ones as well. An good firm takes this into account and helps ease the minds of victims and their loved ones throughout this enduring process.

What to Look for When Hiring an Asbestos Law Firm

Unfortunately, not all law firms specializing in mesothelioma are the same. While some may have several years of experience, other firms are relatively new to the area of mesothelioma. In addition, some law firms may concentrate on other areas of law besides mesothelioma while another firm may solely focus on asbestos cases.
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How a Mesothelioma Law Firm Can Personally Help You

When first getting started, victims usually have a plethora of unanswered questions regarding asbestos and their rights. A good law firm should be able to provide you with following information:

•Evidence Related to Your Exposure: Once you provide the law firm with your work information, they should be able to investigate and determine how asbestos was used at your workplace. In some cases, they may already have the information available.


•If You Truly Have an Asbestos Claim: Asbestos law firms understand what’s needed in order to have a true asbestos claim. With this knowledge, they are able to determine how strong your case is and what the estimated chances are that you’ll win. Most attorneys make sure they’re confident in your case before taking it on. Be wary of any attorney who promises to take your case without knowing any of the details or an attorney who claims they can get you an exact amount of compensation before reviewing your case.


•Your Case Worth: If the firm decides you have an asbestos case, they will then be able to come up with an average figure of how much your case is worth. This is including past expenses, daily expenses, medical bills, lost wages, emotional trauma, physical suffering, future expenses, and much more. Keep in mind, however, that there is no set formula as to how much your award amount may be. The aforementioned factors, along with other details, such as if your former company has a trust fund set up or not, will also come into play.


•Who Exactly is Responsible: It can be difficult for the average person to determine who exactly is responsible for exposing victims to asbestos. For example, companies can move, go out of business, hide, suppress relevant information, and change ownerships. In some cases, your former company is responsible, the manufacturer of the asbestos products may be responsible, or supervisors and/or owners may be responsible. In other instances, there may be just one sole responsible entity, yet in a different case, there may be several responsible parties. Remember that part of the law firm’s job is to research, seek out, and determine the entity or responsible parties that are liable for your exposure to asbestos.
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  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
Mesothelioma Law Firm Fees

Law firms may have different fees as well as different payment options. However, an experienced and caring law firm understands that victims of asbestos-related diseases more than likely have enough financial burden in dealing with their illness, and are unable to afford up-front fees for legal representation. As a result, many firms work on what’s known as a contingency fee basis, meaning that they only get paid when you get paid.

If the law firm doesn’t win your case, they don’t receive compensation either in most instances. The good news, however, is that a firm has to be confident enough in your case to take it on, meaning there is a good chance that if your case is picked up, it will be successful.

Law firm fees are percentages taken out of your total settlement or verdict amount, and again, the percentage amount will vary depending upon the firm. Make sure you understand how the fees and percentages work with the firm beforehand so that there will be no confusion later on.

If a law firm doesn’t provide a contingency fee basis, there is a good chance that they don’t have the financial resources to successfully prove your case. Keep in mind that you’ll want a firm that has the financial capability to take on your case on a contingency fee basis.

Attorneys without the resources to handle your case usually can’t provide you with the best representation. An ideal rule of thumb is to ask up-front about how the fees work so that there are no surprises later on. Attorneys with your best interest in mind will have no problems answering any questions you have regarding fees and prices.
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  • Submitted: 04/25/2016
Mesothelioma Claims
Mesothelioma Claims
Filing a mesothelioma claim is the first step toward receiving remuneration for anyone who has been diagnosed with this deadly asbestos-related disease. If you or a loved one has received such a diagnosis, you could be entitled to receive compensation that covers expenses and lost income due to mesothelioma. This page provides details about the types of claims that can be filed, including legal actions, veterans’ benefits, and workers’ compensation claims.

Filing Asbestos-Related Claims

Asbestos is a dangerous substance that has been linked to a number of often deadly diseases including, but not limited to, mesothelioma and asbestosis. As a result, mesothelioma claims generally rely on several key pieces of information:
•How you were exposed to asbestos
•How long the exposure occurred
•How the exposure has affected your health, quality of life, and ability to work

Given the length of time that it takes for mesothelioma to develop, establishing all of the pertinent facts surrounding your exposure can be challenging. Perhaps you worked in multiple places where you handled or were exposed to asbestos. You may have been exposed to it second hand, such as through dust on a family member’s clothing or via asbestos-filled products and materials in your home.

Even if you don’t know exactly how you were exposed to asbestos, when diagnosed with mesothelioma, it’s important to consult with experienced mesothelioma lawyers about your possibility of filing a claim. Knowledgeable attorneys will ask questions about your work history, previous residences, and other details that can help you identify potential claims.

Claim Deadlines

How long you have to file a mesothelioma claim can vary depending on where you live and the type of claim you are filing.

Each state has its own laws, called statutes of limitations, that determine the time period within which a claim must be filed. Depending on the state, you may have as little as one year or as long as six years during which your asbestos claim can be filed.

The claim filing timeframe can also depend on which type of claim you are making (see below for a description of the different claim types). In some states, you have less time to file a wrongful death claim (filed by family members after a mesothelioma victim dies) than to file a personal injury claim (filed by a mesothelioma victim after diagnosis).

Types of Mesothelioma Claims

There are two types of claims that mesothelioma victims or their families can file. Which type of claim is filed depends on whether the person diagnosed with mesothelioma is still alive, or whether they have passed away.

Personal Injury Claims

A personal injury claim can be filed by someone who has recently been diagnosed with mesothelioma. With personal injury claims, the person directly affected by the disease is claiming that he/she should be compensated for things such as:
•Medical expenses incurred during diagnosis and treatment, including future treatment
•Lost wages or other income, including expected future income
•Pain and suffering experienced because of an asbestos-related disease

Individuals diagnosed with mesothelioma can usually file personal injury claims in any state where he/she resided, worked, or served in the military.

Wrongful Death Claims

A wrongful death claim is filed by the mesothelioma victim’s family after their loved one has passed away. In this case, the family members sue to receive compensation related to the loss of their beloved. This can include:
•Loss of expected income due to the untimely death
•Medical costs incurred during treatment administered before the deceased’s passing
•Funeral expenses

The specific claims available to family members may vary from state to state. Discuss your claim options with a qualified attorney.

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